Fat embolism syndrome (FES)is a life-threatening complication in patients with trauma,especially in long bone fractures.The diagnosis of fat embolism is mainly clinical .The significance of the FES is that it has no specific laboratory findings nor specific treatment except supportive care,although it can be prevented by early fixation of the fractured bone.

Here we report a case which occurred immediately after the surgical fixation is done .We report a case of twenty days old fracture neck of femur which was diagonised as FES on the basis of clinical findings as per GURD and WILSON criteria.The patient received supportive management and a short course of intravenous methylprednisolone.

INTRODUCTION:

FAT EMBOLISM SYNDROME :

The incidence of fat embolism can approach upto 90% in patients with sustained injuries.If it affects,it can affect multiple organ system with its systemic inflammatory cascade resulting in high morbidities and mortalities.So early diagnosis and management is important.The diagnosis of FES is mainly clinical,depends upon clinical signs like dyspnoea,petechia,cognitive dysfunction in the first few days of trauma specially long bone fracture or intramedullary surgery.FES occurs 2-5%of patients who have long bone fracture.Studies says if diagonised early and treated promptly,the mortality may go down to 10%.GURD and WILSON CRITERIA mentioned below is one of the important tool to diagonise FES.

GURD and WILSON CRITERIA(published in 1974):

Major criteria:

1. Symptoms and radiological evidence of respiratory insuffiency(hypoxemia PaO2<60,FiO2=0.4)
2. Cerebral sequelae unrelated to head injury or CNS depression disproportionate to the level of hypoxia.
3. Petechial rashes

Minor criteria:

1. Tachycardia(>110/min)
2. Pyrexia(>38.5 degree C)
3. Retinal emboli on fundoscopy
4. Renal dysfunction(oligoanuria)
5. Jaundice
6. Acute drop in haemoglobin >20%
7. Sudden thrombocytopenia >50%
8. Elevated ESR(>70 mm 1 st hr)
9. Fat macroglobulinemia,fat globules in sputum.

Therefore,It was thought to be reported because it’s a very rare entity and also because of its diificulty in diagonosis as well as if at all diagonised early can lead to prevention of lot of complications and reduction in mortality.

CASE REPORT:

A patient 72 year male,a chronic ethanolic was admitted with the alleged history of fall followed by right trochanteric fracture .Initially after the fall,he was at home but later after 20 days ,he went to a local hospital where he was operated for the fracture.On the day of operation,he developed altered sensorium immediately after the surgery.He was shifted to an another local hospital with ICU facilities where he was transfused with 16 units of FFP and 2 Units of PRBCs for his deranged PT/INR and Low Hemoglobin level.Later when the condition of the patient further deteriorated,he was shifted to our tertiary care hospital for further management of the case.

On admission to our hospital,the patient was in altered sensorium,drowsiness(E2V2M5) and respiratory distress.Initially it was presumed to be a case of hepatic encephalopathy with ARDS,TRALI with AKI and deranged LFT. He was immediately put on invasive ventilation and shifted to Intensive Care Unit.

CXR ,ABG were done suggestive of ARDS.Bronchoscopy was done and lavage was taken and sent for analysis.Trop I was normal(0.098) with normal ECG and normal ECHO.Gradually the patient went into shock and inotropes were started.His platelet count came down to 75000,LDH was 570 and direct coombs test was positive.There was oozing from multiple iv puncture sites and petechial rashes spread all over his body.his urine output gradually decreased.Brochoscopy lavage showed pseudomonas and wound culture from his Bedsore showed acinetobacter growth(MDR).Antibiotics were revised as per hospital antibiogram .

Since there is neurological impairement,respiratory insufficiency with rashes all over the body along with acute drop in platelets count with haemoglobin and there was fat globules in urine ,it was thought to be a case of FAT EMBOLISM SYNDROME(FES) as per GURD and WILSON CRITERIA.

Injectable methylprednisolone was started with iv albumin.there was growth of yeast cells in the urine,so inj Anidulafungin was also started.Gradually the TC count of the patient came down,FiO2 decreased to 40%,inotropes support reduced and the patient was extubated on eighth day.His D- dimer and FDP came positive.Later the patient significantly improved and was shifted to the ward.

INVESTIGATIONS:

Hb:5.9,TLC:32.9,Plat:75000,PT(T):19.5,PT©:13.2,INR:1.56,Na:149,K:3.09,Creat:1.4,BUN:65,Bil:1.37, LDH:570, Albumin:2.5,Fibrinogen:Low,D-dimer positive,stool for occult blood positive,

UGIE:pangastritis,USG whole abdomen:liver parenchymal changes with bright kidneys,ascites.Urine for fat globulin positive,CT brain:normal except age related atrophy.Coomb,s test positive(direct).ECG:normal sinus rhythm,ECHO:normal,TropI:Normal(0.098),CXR:B/L diffuse infiltrates.

Bronchoscopy lavage(BAL)positive for pseudomonas,Bedsore swab culture positive for acinetobacter.Urine positive for budding yeast cells(heavy).

DISCUSSION:

FES is a rare but potentially life threatening complication.A high level of suspicion should be taken when patients present with hypoxia,confusion or rash within 24-72 hrs following long bone fractures and/or  postoperatively. Features of multisystem dysfunction occurs due to either(1)mechanical obstruction of capillaries by fat emboli or (2)production of toxic free fatty acids by hydrolysis of fat after trauma.

Close differential diagnosis include pulmonary embolism,acute respiratory distress syndrome,pulmonary edema or atypical infections.

The mainstay of treatment is always supportive;ensuring good arterial oxygenation,maintaining adequate intravascular volume. Prevention of FES includes early stabilisation of long bone fractures and prophylactic corticosteroids. Possible beneficial effects of steroids include stabilisation of the pulmonary capillary membrane,thus reducing interstitial edema,blunting the inflammatory response, stabilising complement activating system,and reducing platelet aggregation.Heparin is known to clear lipemic serum by stimulating lipase activity.

Without specific tests and validated criteria,diagnosis of FES is challenging.Although many patients recover fully if treated timely.Early diagnosis and and treatment is of paramount importance for a successful outcome.

REFERENCES:

1. Medscape-fat embolism
2. Fulde GW,Harrison P.Fat embolism-a review.ARCH EMERG MED.1991 Dec.8(4):233-9.
3. Mellor A,Soni N.Fat embolism.anaesthesia.2001 Feb,56(2):145-54.

Author:

Dr.Bhaskar jyoti Hazarika.
MBBS. DNB. CCEBDM, Junior Consultant,Critical Care Medicine
Narayana superspeciality hospital, Amingaon, Guwahati, Assam

The post A Rare Case of Fat Embolism Syndrome appeared first on CCEM Journal.

The word delirium comes from the Latindeaway from + lirafurrow in afield, hence literally meaning going away from the ploughed track.  Delirium is a neuropsychiatric syndrome which is transient and reversible.

It is defined as syndrome characterized by the acute onset of cerebral dysfunction with fluctuation in baseline mental status,inattention and either disorganized thinking or an altered conscious leave¹. It is commonly under diagnosed in ICUand has a reported prevalence of 20 – 80% depending upon the severity of illness and need for mechanical ventilation^{2, 3, 4, 5}. Delirium is an independent predictor of mortality². Delirium is known to be associated with long term cognitive decline and early dementia and results in a threefold increase in risk of discharge to long term care. Patient with delirium has increased hospital and ICU stay and overall hospital expenses.  It can be classified according to psychomotor behavior into hyperactive, hypoactive and mixed variant.

Case Summary:

A 40 year old male with no previous co morbidities presented to ER with alleged h/o RTA with complain of pain abdomen and respiratory difficulty. He was initially taken to other hospitals and later presented to our hospital. On presentation his GCS was 15/15, BP- 84/52, pulse -110/min, RR – 18/min, SPO2 – 94 on room air,RBS-580. His abdomen was tender and distended and CT abdomen revealed small bowel perforation. After initial resuscitation he was taken to OT for emergency laparotomy and repair of jejunal perforation with colostomy done. Post operative the patient was kept intubated and shifted to ICU for further management. His initial labvalues revealed high creatinine and hyperkalemia. Antihyperkalemic measures were given and nephrology consultation was taken. USG abdomen revealed AKI which resolved gradually with supportive measures. Patient’s condition improved and he could be extubated on the 4^th day. During stay he also developed sepsis and dyselectrolytemia which were managed accordingly and he was shifted to ward on the 8^th day. In ward the patient remained persistently drowsy but was arousable and responding appropriately. He was tachypneic and tachycardic and he required 2litre of O₂ to maintain a SPO₂ more than 92. Evaluation revealed left lung (basal) atelectasis which was managed conservatively. But the patient remained drowsy. Neurology consultation was taken and the other confounding factors as electrolyte imbalance, seizure, hypoglycemia, hypothyroidism and medications were ruled out. We considered the option of hypoactive delirium and he was given 2.5mg IV haloperidol following which his sensorium improved dramatically. Thus the patient was delerius because of hypoxia and hypoactive delirium though the most prevalent form of delerium could be easily missed and remains undiagnosed prolonging morbidity and hospital stay.

Discussion:

Hypoactive delirium is the most prevalent form of delirium and is characterized by decreased physical and mental activity and inattention^{6, 7, 8}. Hypoactive delirium might actually be associated with worst prognosis^{9, 10} and contributes significantly to the 22-80% of all cases of delirium that remain undiagnosed. Therefore, hypoactive delirium poses a special diagnostic challenge because the patients’ inattention may seem to reflect nothing more than impaired cognitive performance. In its mildest form hypoactive delirium is associated with lethargy and can be easily missed. They are usually arousable and respond appropriately. More severe form may present as very withdrawn and almost mute. In extreme cases patient can be aroused only on painful stimulus¹¹. Elderly are more vulnerable to hypoactive delirium and are associated with worst prognosis.

Delirium is usually multifactorial and can be classified based on modifiable and non-modifiable factors and few baseline risk factors associated with the development of ICU delirium are age, pre-existing dementia or other underlying brain disease, history of hypertension, history of alcoholism and increased severity of illness on admission^12,13,14.

The pathophysiology of delirium is complex and multifactorial and is poorly understood. It is thought that major etiology of integrative brain failure is hemodynamic or metabolicdecompensation elsewhere in the body. There is a growing consensus that delirium is a manifestation of cerebral insufficiency accompanied by disregulation of neurotransmitter system. An excess of dopamine or depletion of acetylcholine has been strongly implicated in the development of delirium ^15,16,17.   Elevated level of serum anticholinergic activity is also associated with delirium. Cholinergic function decrease with age which may explain age is a predictive factor of delirium. Inflammation may also be an important pathway.

The gold standard for diagnosing delirium in a patient is DSM5 (diagnosis and statistical manual of mental disorder) by psychiatrist which is more possible in outpatient and limitation of its application in ICU especially if the patient is intubated or poorly responsive. Thus 2 most validated screening tools for ICU population are CAM-ICU (Confusion Assessment Method- ICU) and ICDSC (Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist). Ideally CAM-ICU would be used more than once during a 24hour period to screen for delirium both during day and night while ICDSC consists of 8 components which are evaluated over a 24hours period. A score of 4 or more is considered as delirium. CAM-ICU consists of 4 components i.e. i) acute fluctuating course of mental status, ii) inattention, iii) altered level of consciousness (current RASS level), and iv) disorganized thinking. The patient must have the first two features combined with one of the last two. CAM-ICU is more sensitive and specific than ICDSC¹⁸, also is better predictor of outcome.

Management is completely based on prevention, identification, screening and treatment. As there is no diagnostic test, it remains purely clinical and recognition of hypoactive delirium becomes more challenging. It is often missed and confused with other CNS condition such as hypoglycemia, septic, hypertensive or metabolic encephalopathy and so on. At present there is no FDA approved medication for prevention and treatment of delirium. Treatment can be broadly classified as nonpharmacological and pharmacological. Nonpharmacological measures like early ambulation, maintenance of sleep wake cycle, removal of tubing’s from all bodily orifices, avoidance of physical and chemical restraints, early removal of all lines, anxiety management by reorienting the patient to ICU personnel and environment. Pharmacological management consists of proper pain management and use of appropriate sedative agent judiciously. It includes use of typical (haloperidol) and atypical (olanzepine, quetipine and risperidone) antipsychotic agent. Side effects of haloperidol like extra pyramidal side effects, neuroleptic malignant syndrome and torsades de pontis should be kept in mind. These medications may themselves cause delirium. Alpha agonist agents like clonidine, dexmedetomidine have sedative effect without GABAergic activity, potentially reducing the requirement of sedation, which itself can be deliriogenic. Benzodiazepines based sedation practices are associated with higher incidence of delirium and should be used only for delirium tremens resulting from alcohol withdrawal. As delirium in ICU is multifactorial, a bundled approach rather than any single intervention might be more fruitful. The use of ABCDE bundle ( Awakening and Breathing trial, Choice of appropriate sedation, Delirium monitoring and management and Early mobility and Exercise) has been shown to decrease the incidence of delirium¹² and improve patient outcome. This is based on PAD 2013 guidelines. Although more pharmacological agents are awaited the mainstay of treatment remains minimization and removal of risk factors along with regular screening of patients.

References:

1. Reade MC, Finfer S. Sedation and Delirium in the intensive care unit. N.Engl J Med 2014;42(6):962-71
2. Ely EW, Shintani A, Truman B, Speroff T, Gordon SM, Harrell FE Jr, et al. Delirium as a predictor of mortality in mechanically ventilated patients in the intensive care unit. JAMA 2004;291(14): 1753-1762.
3. Bergeron N, Dubois MJ, Dumont M, Dial S, Skrobik Y. Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist: evaluation of a new screening tool. Intensive Care Med 2001;27(5)859-864 (Available at: http://www .acgme.org/acgmeweb/tabid/445/GraduateMedicalEducation/SingleAccreditationSystemforAOAApprovedPrograms.aspx. Accessed November 12 , 2016).
4. McNicoll L, Pisani MA, Zhang Y, Ely EW, Siegel MD, Inouye SK. Delirium in the intensive care unit: occurrence and clinical course in older patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 2003;51(5):591-598 (Available at:http://www.acgme.org/acgmeweb/tabid/445/GraduateMedicalEducation/SingleAccreditation SystemforAOA-ApprovedPrograms.aspx. Accessed November 12 , 2016).
5. Girard TD, Pandharipande PP, Ely EW. Delirium in the intensive care unit. Crit Care 2008;12(Suppl. 3):S3.
6. Arrowsmith JE, Grocott HP, Reves JG, et al. Central nervous system complications of cardiac surgery.Br J Anaesth 2000;84:378–393.
7. Hogue CW, Barzilai B, Pieper KS, et al. Sex differences in neurologic outcomes and mortalityafter cardiac surgery: a Society of Thoracic Surgery national database report. Circulation 2001; 103:2133–2137.
8. McKhann GM, Grega MA, Borowicz LM, et al. Encephalopathy and stroke after coronary bypassgrafting. Arch Neurol 2002;59:1422–1428.
9. Alpagut U, Dayioglu E. Anterior spinal artery syndrome after infrarenal abdominal aortic surgery.J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino) 2002;43:865–868.
10. Gopalan PD, Burrows RC. Critical care of the vascular surgery patient. Crit Care Clin 2003;19:109–125.
11. Plum F, Psoner JB. The diagnosis of stupor and coma. 3^rdedn Philadelphia, Davis, 1980
12. Barr J, Fraser GL, Puntillo K, Ely EW, Gelinas C, Dasta JF, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for management of pain, agitation and delirium in adult patient in the intensive care unit: executive summary. Am J Health Pharm 2013
13. O’Mahony R, Murthy L, Akunne A, Young J. Guideline development group. Synopsis of the national institute for health and clinical excellence guideline for prevention of delirium. Ann Intern Med. 2011.
14. Inouye SK, Westendorp RGJ, Saczynski JS, Pun BT, Wilkinson GR, Dittus RS. Delirium in elderly people. Lancet. 2014.
15. Hshieh TT, Fong TG, Marcantonio ER, et al. Cholinergic deficiency hypothesis in delirium: a synthesis of current evidence. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2008;63(7):764-72.

16. Page VJ, Ely EW, Gates S, et al. Effect of intravenous haloperidol on the duration of delirium andcoma in critically ill patients (Hope-ICU): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.Lancet Respir Med 2013;1(7):515-23.
17. Brooks JM, Sarter M, Bruno JP. D2-like receptors in nucleus accumbens negatively modulate acetylcholinerelease in prefrontal cortex. Neuropharmacology 2007;53(3):455-63.
18. Gusmao-Flores D, Salluh JI, Chalhub RÁ, et al. The confusion assessment method for the intensivecare unit (CAM-ICU) and intensive care delirium screening checklist (ICDSC) for the diagnosis of delirium: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies. Crit Care 2012;16(4):R115.

Author:

Dr. Suman Nandi
Consultant, Critical Care Medicine
Narayana Superspeciality Hospital, Guwahati, Assam

The post Hypoactive Delirium: The Most Prevalent and Frequently Missed One: A Case Report appeared first on CCEM Journal.